Russell Haggar

Site Owner

Ethnicity and Social Stratification

Click here for Ethnic group differences in health, employment, education and housing shown in the England and Wales’ Census 2021

Click here for link to excellent recent free E textbook on Ethnicity, Race and Inequality William Shankley, Tina Hannemann and Ludi Simpson [2020] See especially Chapter 6 Ethnic minorities in the Labour Market in Britain

Click here for Racism and Ethnic Inequality in a Time of Crisis: Editors : Nissa Finney, James Nazroo, Laia Beccares, Dharmi Kapadia, Natalie Shlomoo

Data on Ethnicity and the UK Class Structure are taken from the Census 2021 [which cover only England and Wales.] I hope to provide further analysis of Ethnicity and Class Structure in a future document.

Data on many of the following topics can be found via the Ethnicity Facts and Figures Series and in the following notes I make links to this series. In most cases the data relate to 2022, but I expect that the links will automatically be updated as the most recent data become available.

Ethnicity and the Population of England and Wales

Ethnicity and the UK Class Structure

Ethnicity and Employment

Ethnicity and Self-Employment

Ethnicity and Unemployment

Ethnicity, Earnings and Inactivity Rates

Ethnicity and Wage Rates

Ethnicity and Poverty

Ethnicity and Income Inequality

Ethnicity and Wealth Inequality

Ethnicity and Social Mobility

Ethnicity and Political Representation

 

Ethnicity and the Population of England and Wales

  Click Here   for Population of England and Wales. Scroll down to Section 3 and Section 4 for further details.

 

Main facts and figures

according to the 2021 Census, the total population of England and Wales was 59.6 million, and 81.7% of the population was white

people from Asian ethnic groups made up the second largest percentage of the population (9.3%), followed by black (4.0%), mixed (2.9%) and other (2.1%) ethnic groups

out of the 19 ethnic groups, white British people made up the largest percentage of the population (74.4%), followed by people in the white 'other' (6.2%) and Indian (3.1%) ethnic groups

from 2011 to 2021, the percentage of people in the white British ethnic group went down from 80.5% to 74.4%

the percentage of people in the white 'other' ethnic group went up from 4.4% to 6.2% – the largest percentage point increase out of all ethnic groups

the number of people who identified as ‘any other ethnic background’ went up from 333,100 to 923,800

Click here for 50 years of international migration to and from the UK

Click here and here and here for United Kingdom Migration History

Click here and here and here and here

 

 

Ethnic Groups in the Overall Class Structure: NS SEC data from2021 Census.  

I have received 2021 Census data from the ONS on absolute numbers of ethnic group members in each of the NS SEC classes [which my great niece has then kindly converted to percentages!]  There were some technical difficulties in the conversion such that the   first link below provides rounded data, and the second link provides the full data but with the NS SEC categories organised in alphabetical order rather than in numerical order from NS SEC 1 to NS SEC 7.

Thus, you can use the first link to see the overall picture with rounded data, but you will need to use the second link if you wish to see differences of less than 1% between different ethnic groups. For example, via the first link you will see that 9% of Pakistanis and of Black Caribbeans are in NS SEC 1 but via link 2 you will see that the actual figures were 8.81% for Pakistanis and 8.52% for Black Caribbeans.

Click here For NS SEC data :  rounded percentage data  with related Excel chart

Click here for full NS SEC: percentage data to two decimal places

Some Summary Data from the 2021 Census

NS SEC One: Indian [20.06%], Chinese [19.29%] ] White Irish [18.23%]and Mixed White Asian [17.06 ethnic groups are proportionately most represented; White Gypsy/Traveller [2.52%] Bangladeshi[6.59%], White Roma [7.25%] Black Other [7.74] Mixed White and Black Caribbean [8.01%], Black Caribbean [8.52%] and Pakistani [8.81%]]are proportionately least represented.

NS SEC Two White [21.2%] Black Caribbean [20.5%] Black [18.3%] Mixed [17.8%] and Indian [17.7%] %] ethnic groups are proportionately most represented; White Gypsy/Traveller [8.2 %], Bangladeshis [9.6%] and Pakistanis [9.9%] are proportionately least represented.

It is notable that White Gypsy/Traveller, Pakistani and Bangladeshi ethnic groups are underrepresented in NSSEC groups 1 and 2 but that Black and Black Caribbean ethnic groups are underrepresented in NS SEC 1 but not in NS SEC 2.

NS SEC 6 Black Caribbean [15.7%], White British [14.8%] and Mixed White/ Black Caribbean [14.7%] ethnic groups are most likely to be in NS SEC Group 6 and Chinese [7.4%], Arabs [7.1% and Mixed White Asian [9.8%] ethnic groups are least likely to be in NS SEC group6. All other ethnic groups are represented between 9.7% and 14.6% in NS SEC 6.

NS SEC 7 White Gypsy /Traveller [14.6%], White Other [14.5%], White British [11.9%] and Black Caribbean [11.8%] ethnic groups are most likely to be represented in NS SEC Group 7 and Chinese [4.1 %], Arabs [5.7% ] and Mixed 6.4% ethnic groups are least likely to be in NS SEC group7.

It is notable that significant percentages of White British people are represented in NS SEC 6 and NS SEC 7

Ethnicity and the Approximate Social Grades: The AB, C1, C2, DE Schema.

Census data have also been used to quantify the distribution of ethnic groups among Approximate Social Grades.

Click here and here [excel] for Items which Gives ethnicity by Social Grade from 2021 Census. NB : the Excel data are not presented as percentages

Use the first link and scroll down about 40% to Ethnic Group by ASG {Approximate Social Grade]

Members of the Indian, Chinese and Mixed White/Asian ethnic groups are proportionately most likely to be in ASG AB and least likely to be in ASG DE

Members of the Gypsy or Irish Traveller, Bangladeshi, Mixed White and Black Caribbean, Other Black, Caribbean and Pakistani ethnic groups are proportionately least likely to be in ASG AB. Members of the Gypsy or Irish Traveller, Bangladeshi and Pakistani ethnic groups are proportionately most likely to be in ASG DE.

English, Welsh, Scottish Northern Irish and British Whites are proportionately the 6^th most likely to be in ASG AB and proportionately the 6^th least likely to be in ASG DE

You may use the above Excel link to calculate the relevant percentages.

 

Ethnicity and Employment

Click here for Ethnicity Facts and Figures: Fulltime and Part-Time Employment By Ethnicity and scroll down to Section 3 for Percentage of 16 to 64 year olds who were in fulltime and part-time employment, by ethnicity employed, by ethnicity 2022

Scroll down to Sections 6 and 7 for Full time and part-time employment by ethnicity and gender

It is shown that ethnic differences in rates of fulltime and part time employment are small other than for Pakistanis and Bangladeshis wo are less likely to be employed full time and more likely to be employed part time than are members of other ethnic groups.[ It is also shown that, unsurprisingly in all broad ethnic groups men are more likely than women to be employed fulltime].

There are some disputes as to whether the employment prospects on ethnic minority groups have improved relative to white employment prospects as is indicated in the following two sources both of which are critical of the conclusions of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities [also known as The Sewell Report].

Click here for an item from the Economics Observatory

Click here for a similar item from the LSE Centre for Economic Performance

You may also Click here for an item which assesses the extent to which ethnic minority members are discriminated against in the labour market

 

Ethnicity and Self- Employment

Click here for Ethnicity Facts and Figures: Self- Employment.

Data presented here indicate that Pakistani and Bangladeshi people are more proportionately more likely to be self-employed than are members of ethnic groups. This is generally taken to be an indication of the difficulties which Pakistanis and Bangladeshis face in the UK labour market: i.e. since they are less likely to find employment, they are more likely than members of other ethnic groups to opt for self-employment as an alternative

 

Ethnicity and Unemployment

Click here  for Unemployment by Ethnic Background [House of Commons Library Research Briefing [August 2024]

The Briefing indicates that rates of unemployment have been lower for white people than for all other ethnic groups combined [ see Chart 1 page 4] but that there are also significant differences in the rates of unemployment experienced by different ethnic groups.

The Table on Page 2 of the Briefing indicates that in 2024 the White unemployment rate stood at 3.3% and the Minority ethnic group rate stood at 780% but minority ethnic group unemployment rates varied from 4.90%  for Indians to 11.1% for Pakistanis.

The Table on Page 6 Indicates that rates of unemployment are much higher for 16–24-year-olds than for other age groups and that for 16–24-year-olds, the rate of unemployment in 2023-24 varied from 10% for Whites to 27% for Blacks. Clearly a very serious issue.

Click here  for Guardian article on Black Youth Unemployment [April 2021]

The Table on Page 7 of the Briefing indicates that between April “023 and March 2024 in 2021 rates of unemployment were higher for White and Black males than for White and Black females but that among Indians, and Bangladeshis/Pakistanis male unemployment was lower than female unemployment.

 

Ethnicity and Inactivity Rates

The ONS provides quarterly data on the numbers and percentages of the UK population who are either employed, unemployed or economically inactive. Between May-July 2022, 75.4% of individual aged 16-64 were in employment, 3.6% of individuals aged 16-64 were unemployed and 21% of individuals aged 16-64 were economically inactive

In the Government publication Ethnicity Facts and Figures: Economic Activity Rates ,[ Click here ] a precise definition of economic inactivity is provided and it is shown that in 2022 rates of economic activity vary significantly in accordance with ethnicity. It is shown also that economic inactivity is highest among the Pakistani and Bangladeshi ethnic group mainly because of the particularly high rates of economic inactivity among Pakistani and Bangladeshi women although these rates are falling quite significantly among young Pakistani and Bangladeshi women. For example, in 2022 the economic inactivity rate for Pakistani and Bangladeshi men was 19% but 48% for Pakistani and Bangladeshi women.

Click here and scroll down to Section 3 for Activity rates by Ethnicity and scroll down to Section 6 for Activity rates by Ethnicity and Gender for 2022

 

Ethnicity and Wage Rates

Click here and scroll down about 15% to Figure 2 Real Pay Gaps 2022.

These data indicate that Mixed White and Black Caribbean, Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Black African and Black Caribbean employees all received lower pay than White British employees and that White Irish, Chinese, Indian and mixed White and Asian employees all received higher pay than White British employees

Click here  for summary Guardian coverage and a full report from the Living Wage Foundation which indicate that minority ethnic workers are disproportionately paid below the “real living wage” and that 56% of a survey of 2010 minority ethnic workers “say they have experienced some form of discrimination at work”.

Ethnicity and Poverty

Click here for Poverty Data from JRF 2024 [see pages 45-52] Bangladeshis and Pakistanis are especially likely to experience poverty but rates of Poverty for Black African, Black Caribbean and Black other groups and for any other Asian groups are significantly higher than for Whites.

 

Ethnicity and Income Inequality

 

You may  Click Here for a recent publication from the DWP which summarises overall trends  in the distribution of income for 2018-19.

The final table from the first source provides information on the distribution of income [after Housing Costs] for 2016-19 ranging from the 1st quintile [lowest income to the fifth quintile [highest income]

	Quintile 1	Quintile2	Quintile 3	Quintile4	Quintile 5
Ethnicity	%	%	%	%	%
Asian	34	24	16	12	14
Bangladeshi	48	27	15	6	4
Chinese	32	17	17	12	22
Indian	22	18	19	17	24
Pakistani	43	33	15	6	4
Asian other	37	23	14	13	12
Black	39	23	17	12	8
Mixed	30	15	19	20	16
White	18	20	21	21	21
White British	17	20	21	21	21
White other	25	19	18	20	19
Other	39	19	13	14	14

 

Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Black people are over- represented in the bottom two quintiles and under-represented in the top two quintiles. Chinese people are over represented in the bottom two quintiles but also over-represented in the top Quintile. Indian people are represented proportionately in the bottom two quintiles but over represented red in the top quintile.

Given the large size of the white British population in all quintiles is numerically inevitable but they are clearly over-represented in the highest quintile 5 and underrepresented in the lowest quintile 1

 

 

Ethnicity and Wealth Inequality

 

Given the relatively low incomes of ethnic minority workers one would expect these to result in ethnic inequalities in the distribution of wealth and you may Click here to see that this is indeed the case. The mean wealth holdings of White British HRPs [ Household reference person]are significantly higher than HRPs in other ethnic groups while the wealth holdings of Bangladeshi and Black African HRPs are particularly low.  Howeverr it is also notable that the mean wealth holding of Black Caribbean HRPs  is higher than that of Chinese HRPs and that the Pakistani HRP mean wealth holdoing is significantly greater than the Bangladeshi HRP mean wealth holding.

 

Social Mobility

Click here For Social Mobility and Ethnicity [The IFS Deaton Review]

Click here for widening participation in Higher Education

Click here for lecture: Challenging Assumptions about widening participation in Higher Education

 

Ethnicity and Political Representation

Click here for Ethnic diversity in politics and public life (House of Commons Library Research website)